NCERT Solutions for Class 11 History - Themes in World History Chapter 7 - Changing Cultural Traditions

The religious, artistic and literary elements of Greek and Roman culture were revived in the 14th and 15th centuries.

Following are the points of comparison:

1. Huge buildings were constructed under both the Italian and the Islamic architectures.

2. Decoration was prominent in both the styles.

3. Arch and pillars were the important characteristics of both the Italian and the Islamic architectures.

4. Beautiful cathedrals and monasteries were constructed in Italian architecture, whereas large and magnificent mosques were constructed under the Islamic style of architecture.

The towns of Italy were the first to experience the ideas of humanism because of the following reasons:

1. Education spread in Italy by the 13th and 14th centuries.

2. Humanism as a subject was first taught in Italian schools, colleges and universities. Italian people were made aware of humanist views and ideas.

3. Universities were first of all developed here to spread education.

4. A number of classical books were composed by Roman and Greek scholars.

Venice was an Italian city. Venice had a good governance as compared to other governments during the same era.This city was free from the influence of the church and feudal lords. In Venice, bankers and rich merchants played a significant role while there was absolute monarchy in France. In France, common people were deprived of their rights. The French authorities used to be one-of-a- kind from the Venetian style of governance. It was primarily based on the device of Feudalism.

Humanist thought laid stress on skills and ideas that were developed by individuals through debate and discussions. These revolutionary ideas attracted attention of many other universities particularly in the newly established university in Petrarch’s native town, Florence. The humanist thought increased dignity of human beings. Humanism embodied the mystical and aesthetic temper of a pre-scientific age. It laid stress on logic, natural science and metaphysics. It laid emphasis not only on intellectual learning, but also on physical and moral development. Humanism relied on flexible thinking. After Petrarch, the humanist philosophy spread first through Italy, then into other parts of Europe. Humanist thought was reflected in contemporary art and architecture. Petrarch represented conservative Italian humanism. Humanism embodied the mystical and aesthetic temper of a pre-scientific age. The intellectuals of antiquity were relatively unconcerned about the supernatural world and the eternal destiny of the soul. They were mainly interested in a happy, adequate and efficient life on earth. The leading intellectual trait of the era was the recovery of the secular and humane philosophy of Greece and Rome. The writings of Dante and particularly the doctrines of Petrarch and humanists like Machiavelli emphasized the virtues of intellectual freedom and individual expression. In the essays of Montaigne, the individualistic view of life received the most persuasive and eloquent statement in the history of literature and society. Leonardo daVinci’s ‘The Last Supper’, Mona Lisa, Michelangelo’s The Last Judgement, Fall of Man and Raphel’s Madonna were the important works.

It is probably the most important century in the making of the modern world:- Scientific discoveries of Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler and Isaac Newton brought about new changes in the world. The Italian scientist Galileo invented telescope. Newton gave the theory of gravitation. He systematized scientific valuations about the universe. Copernicus, tried to prove that the earth rotates round the sun. Marco Polo’s invention of the compass made voyage easier. The explorations of the sailors like Vasco da Gama, Columbus etc. led to discoveries of new lands. Their explorations revolutionized trade. The invention of the printing press made books available to the people in various towns and cities. Rome, Florence and Venice became the centers of art and learning. Many artists, scholars and writers were patronized by the rich people in the cities and towns. Town became the center of art and learning activities. Thomas Moore’s “Utopia” ridiculed the malpractices of the contemporary society. On above
basis, it can be said that the world appeared different to 17th century Europeans.